BRITISH HISTORY THE STORY of
1st CENTURY BC -
Four crucial ideas emerge as Brits fight for freedom.
Why were the Brits in America so concerned about taxes?
"The majority of people who came to America in the 17th and 18th centuries were from the British Isles. They shared a common language, a common political tradition, and the Common Law. America benefited from a debate about liberty, which had gone on in England for some 150 years," says For UK orders:
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De Lolme's Constitution compares English and French governments and the origins of liberty in Britain. For UK orders:
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An interesting guide to everyday life in the American colonies. For UK orders:
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A Presbyterian preacher in Edinburgh, John Witherspoon has little enthusiasm for transplanting his five children and wife thousands of miles to the wilds of America to rescue the College of New Jersey. Finally persuaded, he pulls the college (now called Princeton) from the brink of bankruptcy, articulates the reasons for revolution, signs the Declaration of Independence, and serves on more than one hundred committees in the Continental Congress. A man with a “great and luminous mind,” Witherspoon's influence on James Madison and the new U.S. government (he taught many of its members) is galvanising: “It is of consequence to have as much virtue among the particular members of a community as possible; but it is folly to expect that a state should be upheld by integrity in all who have a share in managing it. They must be so balanced, that when everyone draws to his own interest or inclination there must be an even poise upon the whole.” His advice for politicians is equally apt: “Ne’er do ye speak unless ye ha’ something to say, and when ye are done, be sure and leave off.” For UK orders:
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In Boston, in 1770, boys and men gather around eight soldiers, and throw snowballs. The frightened soldiers fire back, killing five. The event hardens colonial feelings, and is an important crossroads on the road to revolution. Photo: [email protected] BRITS IN AMERICA 1765-1769 BLACKSTONE'S COMMENTARIES ON COMMON LAW AND MAGNA CARTA BECOME FIERY DEFENCE OF FREEDOM William Blackstone is an undramatic jurist and professor who publishes four volumes that will dramatically influence the defenders of freedom. Blackstone describes the history of Common Law and explains its meaning. The framers of the U.S. Constitution will rely on his commentaries. U.S. Supreme Court justices refer to him to this day. Blackstone explains the precedents and protections of Common Law very clearly, and makes a blazingly clear case for the right to self-defence. “The rights or. . .liberties of Englishmen. . .consist primarily in the free enjoyment of personal security, of personal liberty and of private 1764 'FAMILY' FEUD ERUPTS OVER MONEY AND RIGHTS Brits in America and Brits in Britain feel connected by language, culture, blood, and trade, but a vast ocean and wilderness experiences separate them. In America Brits are angered when the Government curbs their westward expansion; shocked when Parliament prohibits them from issuing legal paper money (an action that destabilizes their economy); and outraged when Parliament levies taxes on the sale of sugar, coffee, and wine to help pay for the French and Indian War. Some MPs have qualms about making decisions for people who live thousands of miles away, but others, supported by George III, insist that Parliament can tax every Brit wherever he is and despite his lack of representation. Pitt the Elder is dying, but he passionately urges Parliament to allow Brits in America representation, independent judges, and jury trials, and warns that America cannot be conquered by military force. At a meeting in Boston, James Otis charges that Brits they are being taxed without representation. This is contrary to their rights as Brits, and he urges a united response. 1765 SONS OF LIBERTY COMBAT THE STAMP ACT Parliament insists on passing the Stamp Act, which will tax every piece of printed material in America, including newspapers, bills, legal documents, and playing cards. Journalists in America are livid, and merchants are worried the Act will wreck commerce. The Sons of Liberty, an obstreperous and freedom-loving group of Brits in America, organize in every colony, and force Stamp Act agents to resign. A Stamp Act Congress convenes in New York, and sends a petition to George III arguing that taxation without representation violates their English civil rights. When the Stamp Act goes into effect November 1, legal transactions in America grind to a halt, and riots break out. 1765-1766 INFAMOUS QUARTERING ACT DENIES BRITS IN AMERICA THEIR RIGHTS In Britain the 1628 Petition of Right outlawed the quartering of soldiers on civilians, but Parliament passes a law requiring colonists in America to house, supply, and transport troops. The New York Assembly agrees to house and transport 1100 men, but declines to pay for their daily rum and hard cider, probably forseeing an expensive liquor bill. Parliament retaliates by declaring all the acts of the New York Assembly null and void. Violence breaks out between British soldiers and armed colonists, among them members of the Sons of Liberty. 1767 - 1768 TOWNSHEND ACTS ENRAGE COLONISTS; SAM ADAMS CALLS FOR PROTESTS After withdrawing the Stamp Act and imposing the Declaratory Act (which states that Parliament has the power to legislate any laws governing the American colonies in all cases), Parliament imposes the Townshend Acts – new taxes on glass, paper, and tea. To the dismay of colonists in America the tax money does not go to the soldiers who are supposed to protect them, but into the pockets of the colonial governors. Withholding the salaries of unreasonable governors had been an effective defense against their abuses. Now Parliament has summarily removed this protection. Joseph Warren, a young Boston doctor, protests the Acts in the Gazette. The Government prosecutes the newspaper for seditious libel, but the grand jury refuses to return an indictment. Warren’s friend Sam Adams publishes a Circular Letter that calls on all Brits in America to resist taxation without representation. The Circular (think group email) is rushed to every colonial assembly. The Government in London orders the assemblies not to endorse Adams’ Circular, but New Hampshire, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Massachusetts do just that. Trade boycotts and coordinated resistance spread. American Farm Photo: [email protected] 1768 'FARMER' LIGHTS A WILDFIRE John Dickinson lives on a farm near Wilmington, Delaware, where he manages to spend most of his time in his library reading about Constitutional issues. Aroused by what he considers the Mother Country's injustice, he writes the Farmer's Letters. His 12 letters spread like wildfire in colonial newspapers, and create a sensation. They deny Parliament’s supremacy, and suggest the colonists can govern themselves. 1769 – 1770 VIRGINIA OPPOSES TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION; JURY TRIALS IN NON-LOCAL JURISDICTIONS At the Virginia House of Burgesses, 37-year-old George Washington presents a set of resolutions calling for Virginia to oppose taxation without representation and Parliament's plans to try American protestors in Britain where they will be denied a jury of their peers. 1770 EDMUND BURKE ADVOCATES MORE POWER FOR VOTERS British philosopher Edmund Burke is known for his conservative views. In his early forties, when he is a member of Parliament, Burke urges that voters become more active in the defence of their powers, and advocates that the British Government respond positively to the demands of Brits in America. In 1774 he will say, "The only liberty I mean, is a liberty connected with order; that not only exists along with order and virtue, but which cannot exist at all without them."1771 BESTSELLER DECLARES RESISTANCE IS THE CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT OF BRITS Leaving Switzerland and becoming a British citizen, J.L. de Lolme writes a book called The Constitution of England, and points out that the liberties of the people are “feeble defences against the real strength of those who govern.” If a ruler decides to ignore his people’s rights and property, what can they do? De Lolme answers: Resist: The Laws of England look upon resistance “as the ultimate and lawful resource against the violences of Power.” His book becomes a bestseller in America. 1772 AN UNLIKELY HERO FIGHTS SLAVERY In London, Granville Sharp sacrifices his social life to teach himself Hebrew and New Testament Greek. He becomes an evangelical. He is 30 when a young African slave, pistol-whipped almost to death by his master, is brought to Sharp's brother, a surgeon, who saves the boy. Granville is galvanized by the event, and begins reading law to discover a way to legally end the importation of slaves. His research persuades him that human dignity and freedom are grounded in both Scripture and Common Law. He notes the Common Law precedent of Cartwright (1569) which explicitly stated slavery could not exist in England. This was confirmed in Shanley v Hervey (1762) when the court ruled, "As soon as a man puts foot on English ground, he is free: a Negro may maintain an action against his master for ill usage, and may have a Habeas Corpus, if restrained of his liberty." It was asserted again in Smith v Brown and Cooper (1765), when Chief Justice Holt ruled, "As soon as a negro comes into England, he becomes free: one may be a villein in England, but not a slave." Since these rulings were being ignored, Sharp writes the Injustice of Tolerating Slavery in England. His legal brilliance saves the injured boy from being returned to his master. In 1772 Granville brings a writ of habeas corpus on behalf of James Somerset, an escaped slave who has been recaptured and is lying in chains on a ship bound for Jamaica. The suit to free him is heard in the court of William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield. Murray is the clear-headed judge who established the fundamental principles of British mercantile law. He considers slavery a legal fact. Though not a member of the bar, Granville develops the legal strategy to free Somerset. The representing barrister makes Granville's precedent-based arguments, and Judge Mansfield makes a 180° turn. He rules that slavery is odious and incompatible with Common Law and that the instant any slave sets his foot on English ground, he becomes free. The Boston Tea Party is not the King's cup of tea. 1772 – 1773 WATER, FIRE, AND TEA In 1772 a customs schooner responsible for collecting taxes runs aground off Rhode Island. Brits in America attack it, and after setting the crew ashore, burn the ship. In 1773, Parliament gives the East India Company preferential treatment so it can undersell American tea merchants. In November, three East India ships loaded with tea sail into Boston Harbor. In mass meetings Bostonians decide to send the ships straight back to London. The governor refuses to allow the ships to leave until import duties are paid. Eight thousand Bostonians protest. On the night of December 16, activists disguised as Red Indians board the ships, and dump over 200 tons of tea into the drink. 1774 FURIOUS GEORGE III AND PARLIAMENT COERCE BRITS IN AMERICA; RESISTANCE GROWS Furious about the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passes a series of Coercive Acts (called Intolerable Acts in America). The Acts shut down all commercial shipping in Boston until the tea steeping in Boston Harbor is paid for, and they establish a new Quartering Act that requires Brits in America to house British troops. General Thomas Gage is a conflicted personality. He arrives with four regiments to enforce the Acts, but is unenthusiastic about depriving fellow Brits of their freedom. In response to the Acts and Gage's arrival, the colonials organize a congress, and women join men in refusing to buy British goods, an action which shocks London. 1774 GRANVILLE SHARP SUPPORTS FELLOW BRITS IN AMERICA Granville Sharp is outraged by Parliament’s treatment of the American colonists, and publishes a pamphlet called "A Declaration of the People’s natural Right to a Share in the Legislature, which is the fundamental Principle of the British Constitution". When Benjamin Franklin arrives in England that summer, Sharp gives him a copy. Franklin reads it, and sends it by ship to America the same day. There it is reprinted (one press in Boston alone prints 7,000 copies) where it causes considerable impact. Echoes of Granville Sharp's ideas and language will be heard in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. 1774 COLONIALS HOLD FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS In September and October delegates from every colony but Georgia meet in Philadelphia at the First Continental Congress. Sam and John Adams, George Washington, Patrick Henry, and John Hancock, among others, attend. Congress develops a programme with a hard and a soft line. It declares that the intolerable Coercive Acts are “not to be obeyed” and issues A Declaration of Rights that affirms the right to “life, liberty and property”. It also calls for a trade embargo and support for local militia units. Meekly, Congress forwards a petition to Parliament respectfully requesting that the Acts be rescinded. More boldly, the Continental Congress creates the Continental Army. It is intended to be a defensive army of citizen-soldiers. Parliament contemptuously rejects the petition. Army officers speak scornfully about colonial militias, apparently forgetting that Brits in America learn how to shoot muskets and rifles when they are children, and are excellent shots. 1775 REBELLION SMOULDERS IN NEW YORK AND VIRGINIA, AND LEAPS INTO FLAMES IN MASSACHUSETTS New Yorkers write London's Mayor that they are "born to the bright inheritance of English freedom". They insist they will fight for that bright inheritance if they have to. Patrick Henry faces a Virginia Convention afraid to break with Britain. Though he risks jail or execution for his speech, the 39-year-old Henry tells Virginians that ten years of pleading and argument have led nowhere. He asks, “Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery?” He answers, “I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!” His words dispel doubts, and Virginians prepare for armed resistance. Parliament secretly orders Governor Gage to enforce the Coercive Acts. In April, in Boston, Gage orders 700 soldiers to destroy the colonists’ weapons depot in Concord, Massachusetts. Doctor Joseph Warren hears of the plan, and sends riders, including Paul Revere, to warn Concord and Lexington. As they sound the alarm "in every Middlesex village and farm," church bells peal and drums beat, calling militias into action. At dawn on April 19, fifty militiamen face the British advance guard on Lexington Green. They are fathers and sons. The youngest is 18. The oldest is 63. It is reported that the British commanding officer rides up and shouts, “Lay down your arms, you damned rebels, or you are all dead men. Fire!” Portion of print: A.H. Ritchie The "shot heard 'round the world" ignites the American Revolution. British rifle fire and bayonets leave eight Americans dead and ten wounded. At Concord, the Americans stand their ground, then break with convention, and sharp-shoot "from behind each fence and farmyard wall," forcing British soldiers into a bloody retreat. Riders gallop the news to every colony. Thirteen thousand volunteers assemble to lay siege to Boston. 1775 PLEDGING THEIR LIVES, THEIR FORTUNES, & THEIR SACRED HONOUR In Boston, General Gage orders his troops to storm Breed and Bunker Hills. The Americans unload deadly volleys at the British troops, but are forced to retreat when they run out of ammunition. Dr. Joseph Warren, fighting as a private in the front lines, is killed along with 400 other Americans. Determined to make, or at least appear to make, every effort to avoid war, the Second Continental Congress sends the ‘Olive Branch Petition’ directly to George III, appealing one last time for his help in achieving reconciliation. The King refuses to look at the petition, and issues a proclamation declaring America in open rebellion. George Washington accepts command of the Continental Army from Congress although he knows he will be hanged if the rebellion fails. Always a man to look at what is, rather than what he wishes it were, and always prepared to fight on, despite bullets and shrapnel flying around him and horses shot out from under him, Washington makes plans to defeat the best-trained army in the world. When you contribute to this website, |
"Clearly and elegantly written," Blackstone's Commentaries "exerted a powerful influence" in Britain and America. For UK orders
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John Dickinson studied at the Middle Temple, London, where he learned the importance of protecting ancient individual rights against arbitrary rule. Back in America on his farm he writes a series of down-to-earth letters with the kick of a musket. For UK orders:
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"The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil For UK orders:
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It would be wonderful to see a good biography of Sharp. (Perhaps Bernard Cornwell is interested?) Sharp's memoirs are available in the UK:
Sharp's writings are the best source of his implacable opposition to slavery. (Only available from Amazon US):
This fast-moving biography of a passionate, private man (Adams burned all his papers before his death) shows how he and the Sons of Liberty moved step by step toward revolution. For US orders:
Churchill is partial to great explorers, great generals, and great revolutions. He has them all in Volume 3 of his history of the ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES. For UK orders:
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Gordon Wood describes the farmers, artisans, attorneys, mothers, daughters, and writers who created a revolution. For UK orders:
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